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Bowlby, J. (1960) Grief and Mourning in Infancy and Early Childhood. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 15:9-52
- 9 mediating attachment behavior are activated and the mother figure continues to be unavailable. It is by now widely recognized that loss of the mother figure in the period between about six months and three or four or more years is an event of high pathogenic potential.
- 13 In my view this hypothesis accounts more satisfactorily than do others for the clinical facts as we glean them in retrospect and darkly from our older patients, and their parents, and is more consonant with our present knowledge of the long phase of attachment of young child to mother and his intense distress at her loss or threatened loss.
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Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment and Loss: Volume I: Attachment. Attachment and Loss: Volume I: Attachment 79:i-xx
- 1969 Attachment and Loss: Volume I: Attachment The International Psychoanalytical Library LondonThe Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis
- Khan 79 i-xx Attachment and Loss Volume I: Attachment John Bowlby Mother and child of the Matto Grosso, Amazon basin iii Contents Preface xi Acknowledgements xvii Part I: The Task 1 Point of View 3 Some Characteristics of the Present Approach 5 Theories of Motivation 13 Note on the Concept of Feedback in Freud's Theorising 22 2 Observations to Be Explained 24 Part II: Instinctive Behaviour 3 Instinctive Behaviour: An Alternative Model 37 Introduction 37 Some Principles of Control Systems 41 Control Systems and Instinctive Behaviour 44 Adaptation: System and Environment 50 Note on Literature 56 4 Man's Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness 58 5 Behavioural Systems Mediating Instinctive Behaviour 65 Types of Behavioural System 65 Co-Ordination of Behavioural Systems 74 Higher Processes of Integration and Control 80 6 Causation of Instinctive Behaviour 85 Activation and Termination of Behavioural Systems 85 Incompatible Behavioural Systems: Results of Simultaneous Activation 97 Sensory Input and its Transformation 102 7 Appraising and Selecting: Feeling and Emotion 104 Introduction 104 Philosophical Problems 106 Processes That are Felt 109 vii Is Feeling or Emotion Causative of Behaviour?
- As my study of theory progressed it was gradually borne in upon me that the field I had set out to plough so lightheartedly was no less than the one that Freud had started tilling sixty years earlier, and that it contained all those same rocky excrescences and thorny entanglements that he had encountered and grappled with—love and hate, anxiety and defence, attachment and loss. What had deceived me was that my furrows had been started from a corner diametrically opposite to the one at which Freud had entered and through which analysts have always followed.
- I am much indebted for help given me also by other colleagues who have worked at the Tavistock Clinic and Tavistock Institute of Human Relations on problems of attachment and loss. Since she left the Tavistock in 1954, Mary Salter Ainsworth and I have kept in close touch.
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Bowlby, J. (1969) The Child's Tie to his Mother: Attachment Behaviour. Attachment and Loss: Volume I: Attachment 79:177-209
- So long as a child is in the unchallenged presence of a principal attachment-figure, or within easy reach, he feels secure. A threat of loss creates anxiety, and actual loss sorrow; both, moreover, are likely to arouse anger.
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Bowlby, J. (1973) Anxious Attachment and ‘Agoraphobia’. Attachment and Loss: Volume II: Separation, Anxiety and Anger 95:292-312
- Nevertheless, because the theory posits that childhood models of attachment figures persist, it would predict that these patients would continue to be especially sensitive both to loss of an attachment figure and to any situation that they construed as presaging loss.
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Bowlby, J. (1973) Pathways for the Growth of Personality. Attachment and Loss: Volume II: Separation, Anxiety and Anger 95:363-371
- Experiences of separation from attachment figures, whether 369 of short or long duration, and experiences of loss or of being threatened with separation or abandonment—all act, we can now see, to divert development from a pathway that is within optimum limits to one that may lie outside them.
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Bowlby, J. (1973) Attachment and Loss: Volume II: Separation, Anxiety and Anger. Attachment and Loss: Volume II: Separation, Anxiety and Anger 95:i-xviii
- 1973 Attachment and Loss: Volume II: Separation, Anxiety and Anger The International Psychoanalytical Library LondonThe Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis
- Khan 95 i-xviii Attachment and Loss Volume II: Separation, Anxiety and Anger John Bowlby Contents Preface xi Acknowledgments xvii Part I: Security, Anxiety, and Distress 1 Prototypes of Human Sorrow 3 Responses of Young Children to Separation from Mother 3 Conditions Leading to Intense Responses 6 Conditions Mitigating the Intensity of Responses 16 Presence or Absence of Mother Figure: A Key Variable 22 2 The Place of Separation and Loss in Psychopathology 25 Problem and Perspective 25 Separation Anxiety and other Forms of Anxiety 30 A Challenge for Theory 30 3 Behaviour with and without Mother: Humans 33 Naturalistic Observations 33 Experimental Studies 39 Ontogeny of Responses to Separation 52 4 Behaviour with and without Mother: Non-Human Primates 57 Naturalistic Observations 57 Early Experimental Studies 60 Further Studies by Hinde and Spencer-Booth 69 Part II: An Ethological Approach to Human Fear 5 Basic Postulates in Theories of Anxiety and Fear 77 Anxiety Allied to Fear 77 Models of Motivation and Their Effects on Theory 79 Puzzling Phobia or Natural Fear 83 6 Forms of Behaviour Indicative of Fear 87 An Empirical Approach 87 Withdrawal Behaviour and Attachment Behaviour 89 Feeling Afraid and its Variants: Feeling Alarmed and Feeling Anxious 92 vii 7 Situations That Arouse Fear in Humans 96 A Difficult Field of Study 96 Fear-Arousing Situations: The First Year 99 Fear-Arousing Situations: The Second and Later Years 105 Compound Situations 118 Fear Behaviour and the Development of Attachment 119 8 Situations that Arouse Fear in Animals 124 Natural Clues to Potential Danger 124 Fear Behaviour of Non-Human Primates 127 Compound Situations 134 Fear, Attack, and Exploration 136 9 Natural Clues to Danger and Safety 138 Better Safe Than Sorry 138 Potential Danger of Being Alone 142 Potential Safety of Familiar Companions and Environment 146 Maintaining a Stable Relationship with the Familiar Environment: A Form of Homeostasis 148 10 Natural Clues, Cultural Clues, and the Assessment of Danger 151 Clues of Three Kinds 151 Real Danger: Difficulties of Assessment 153 ‘Imaginary’ Dangers 156 Cultural Clues Learnt from Others 158 Continuing Role of the Natural Clues 161 Behaviour in Disaster 166 11 Rationalization, Misattribution, and Projection 169 Difficulties in Identifying Situations That Arouse Fear 169 Misattribution and the Role of Projection 172 The case of Schreber: A Re-Examination 174 12 Fear of Separation 178 Hypotheses Regarding its Development 178 Need for Two Terminologies 182 Part III: Individual Differences in Susceptibility to Fear: Anxious Attachment 13 Some Variables Responsible for Ndividual Differences 187 Constitutional Variables 187 viii Experiences and Processes That Reduce susceptibility to fear 191 Experiences and Processes That Increase Susceptibility to Fear 196 14 Susceptibility to Fear and the Availability of Attachment Figures 201 Forecasting the Availability of an Attachment Figure 201 Working Models of Attachment Figures and of Self 203 The Role of Experience in Determining Working Models 207 A Note on Use of the Terms ‘Mature’ and ‘Immature’ 209 15 Anxious Attachment and Some Conditions that Promote it 211 ‘Overdependency’ or Anxious Attachment 211 Anxious Attachment of Children Reared without a Permanent Mother Figure 215 Anxious Attachment After a Period of Separation or of Daily Substitute Care 220 Anxious Attachment Following Threats of Abandonment or Suicide 226 16 ‘Overdependency’ and the Theory of Spoiling 237 Some Contrasting Theories 237 Studies of ‘Overdependency’ and its Antecedents 240 17 Anger, Anxiety, and Attachment 245 Anger: A Response to Separation 245 Anger: Functional and Dysfunctional 246 Anger, Ambivalence, and Anxiety 253 18 Anxious Attachment and the ‘Phobias’ of Childhood 258 Phobia, Pseudophobia, and Anxiety State 258 ‘School Phobia’ or School Refusal 261 Two Classical Cases of Childhood Phobia: A Reappraisal 283 Animal Phobias in Childhood 289 19 Anxious Attachment and ‘Agoraphobia’ 292 Symptomatology and Theories of ‘Agoraphobia’ 292 Pathogenic Patterns of Family Interaction 299 ‘Agoraphobia’, Bereavement, and Depression 309 A Note on Response to Treatment 310 20 Omission, Suppression, and Falsification of Family Context 313 ix 21 Secure Attachment and the Growth of Self-Reliance 322 Personality Development and Family Experience 322 Studies of Adolescents and Young Adults 328 Studies of Young Children 350 Self-Reliance and Reliance on Others 359 22 Pathways for the Growth of Personality 363 The Nature of Individual Variation: Alternative Models 363 Developmental Pathways and Homeorhesis 366 One Person's Pathway: Some Determinants 369 Appendices I Separation Anxiety: Review of Literature 375 II Psychoanalysis and Evolution Theory 399 III Problems of Terminology 404 References 409 x Preface In the preface to the first volume of this work I describe the circumstances in which it was begun.
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Bowlby, J. (1973) Prototypes of Human Sorrow. Attachment and Loss: Volume II: Separation, Anxiety and Anger 95:3-24
- The words ‘separation’ and ‘loss’ as used in this work imply always that the subject's attachment figure is inaccessible, either temporarily (separation) or permanently (loss).
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Bowlby, J. (1973) Fear of Separation. Attachment and Loss: Volume II: Separation, Anxiety and Anger 95:178-183
- The words ‘separation’ and ‘loss’ as used in this work imply always that the subject's attachment figure is inaccessible, either temporarily (separation) or permanently (loss).
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Bowlby, J. (1973) Anger, Anxiety, and Attachment. Attachment and Loss: Volume II: Separation, Anxiety and Anger 95:245-257
- 1 Clinical experience suggests that the situations of separation and loss with which this work is concerned are especially liable to result in anger with an attachment figure that crosses the threshold of intensity and becomes dysfunctional.
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Bowlby, J. (1973) Appendix III: Problems of Terminology. Attachment and Loss: Volume II: Separation, Anxiety and Anger 95:404-408
- and ‘anger’. Since separation from an attachment figure is accompanied by longing and often also by anger, and loss by anguish and despair, it is entirely appropriate to use the word anxiety to denote what is felt either when an attachment figure cannot be found or when there is no confidence that an attachment figure will be available and responsive when desired.
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Bowlby, J. (1979) Psychoanalysis as Art and Science. International Review of Psychoanalysis 6:3-14
- 1969 Attachment and Loss. Volume 1. Attachment London: Hogarth Press; New York: Basic Books.
- 1973 Attachment and Loss. Volume 2. Separation: Anxiety and Anger London: Hogarth Press; New York: Basic Books.
- Attachment and new beginning Int. J. Psychoanal. 3:491-497 ROBERTSON, J. 1953 Some responses of young children to loss
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Bowlby, J. (1980) Plan of Work. Attachment and Loss: Volume III: Loss, Sadness and Depression 109:75-77
- This leads to a central theme of the volume, namely, the influence on responses to loss of the experiences which a bereaved person has had with attachment figures during the whole course of his life, and especially during his infancy, childhood and 76 adolescence.
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Bowlby, J. (1980) Attachment and Loss: Volume III: Loss, Sadness and Depression. Attachment and Loss: Volume III: Loss, Sadness and Depression 109:i-xv
- 1980 Attachment and Loss: Volume III: Loss, Sadness and Depression The International Psychoanalytical Library LondonThe Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis Clifford Yorke 109 i-xv Attachment and Loss Volume III: Loss, Sadness and Depression John Bowlby Contents Acknowledgements xiii Preface 1 Part I: Observations, Concepts and Controversies 1 The Trauma of Loss 7 Prelude 7 Grief in Infancy and Early Childhood 9 Do Young Children Mourn? A Controversy 14 Detachment 19 2 The Place of Loss and Mourning in Psychopathology 23 A Clinical Tradition 23 Ideas Regarding the Nature of Mourning Processes, Healthy and Pathological 24 Ideas to Account for Individual Differences in Response to Loss 34 3 Conceptual Framework 38 Attachment Theory: An Outline 38 Stressors and States of Stress and Distress 41 4 An Infomation Processing Approach to Defence 44 A New Approach 44 Exclusion of Information from Further Processing 44 Subliminal Perception and Perceptual Defence 46 Stages at Which Processes of Defensive Exclusion May Operate 52 Self or Selves 59 Some Consequences of Defensive Exclusion 64 Conditions That Promote Defensive Exclusion 69 Defensive Exclusion: Adaptive or Maladaptive 72 5 Plan of Work 75 vii Part II: The Mourning of Adults 6 Loss of Spouse 81 Source 81 Four Phases of Mourning 85 Differences between Widows and Widowers 103 Note: Details of Sources 106 7 Loss of Child 112 Introduction 112 Parents of Fatally Ill Children 113 Parents of Infants Who are Stillborn or Die Early 122 Affectional Bonds of Diffrent Types: A Note 124 8 Mourning in Other Cultures 126 Beliefs and Customs Common to Many Cultures 126 Mourning a Grown Son in Tikopia 132 Mourning a Husband in Japan 134 9 Disordered Variants 137 Two Main Variants 137 Chronic Mourning 141 Prolonged Absence of Conscious Grieving 152 Mislocations fo the Lost Person's Presence 161 Euphoria 169 10 Conditions Affecting the Course of Mourning 172 Five Categories of Variable 172 Identity and Role of Person Lost 173 Age and Sex of Person Bereaved 178 Causes and Circumstances of Loss 180 Social and Psychological Circumstances Affecting the Bereaved 187 Evidence from Therapeutic Intervention 195 11 Personalities Prone to Disordered Mourning 202 Limitations of Evidence 202 Disposition to Make Anxious and Ambivalent Relationships 203 viii Disposition Towards Complusive Caregiving 206 Disposition to Assert Independence of Affectional Ties 211 Tentative Conclusions 222 12 Childhood Experience of Persons Prone to Disordered Mourning 214 Traditional Theories 214 The Position Adopted 216 Experiences Disposing Towards Anxious and Ambivalent Attachment 218 Experiences Disposing Towards Compulsive Caregiving 222 Experiences Disposing Towards Assertion of Independence of Affectional Ties 224 13 Cognitive Process Contributing to Variations in Response to Loss 229 A Framework for Conceptualizing Cognitive Processes 229 Cognitive Biases Affecting Responses to Loss 232 Biases Contributing to Chronic Mourning 234 Biases Contributing to Prolonged Absence of Grieving 239 Biased Perceptions of Potential Comforters 240 Biases Contributing to a Healthy Outcome 242 Interaction of Congnitive Biases with other Conditions Affecting Responses to Loss 243 14 Sadness, Depression and Depressive Disoder 245 Sadness and Depression 245 Depressive Disorder and Childhood Experience 246 Depressive Disorders and Their Relation to Loss: George Brown's Study 250 The Role of Neurophysiological Processes 261 Part III: The Mourning of Children 15 Death of Parent during Childhood and Adolesence 265 Sources and Plan of Work 265 When and What a Child is Told 271 Children's Ideas About Death 273 ix 16 Children's Responses when Conditions are Favorable 276 Mourning in Two Four-Year-Olds 276 Some Tentative Conclusions 285 Diffrences between Children's Mourning and Adults 295 Behaviour of Surviving Parents to Their Bereaved Children 292 17 Childhood Bereavement and Psychiatric Disorder 295 Increased Risk of Psychiatric Disorder 295 Some Disorders to Which Childhood Bereavement Contributes 300 18 conditions Responsible for Difference in Outcome 311 Source of Evidence 311 Evidence from Surveys 312 Evidence from Therapeutic Studies 317 19 Children's Responses when Conditions are Unfavourable 320 Four Children Whose Mourning Failed 320 Peter, Eleven When Father Died 321 Henry, Eight When Mother Died 327 Visha, Ten When Father Died 333 Geraldine, Eight When Mother Died 338 20 Deactivation and the Cocnept fo Segregated Systems 345 21 Disordered Variants and Some Conditions Contributing 350 Persisting Anxiety 351 Hopes of Reunion: Desire to Die 354 Persisting Blame and Guilt 358 Overactivity: Aggressive and Destructive Outbursts 361 Compulsive Caregiving Annd Self-Reliance 365 Euphoria and Depersonalization 370 Identificatory Symptoms: Accidents 376 22 Effects of a Parent's Suicide 381 Proportion of Parents' Deaths Due to Suicide 381 Findings from Surveys 382 Findings from Therapeutic Studies 383 x 23 Responses to Loss During the Third and Fourth Years 390 Questions Remaining 390 Responses when Coditiosn are Favourable 390 Responses when Coditions are Unfavourable 397 24 Responses to Loss During the Second Year 412 A Transitional Period 412 Responses when Coditiosn are Favourable 412 Responses when Coditions are Unfavourable 416 25 Young Children's Responses in the Light of Early Cognitive Development 425 Developing the Concept of Person Permanence 425 The Role of Person Permanence in Determining Respondses to Separation and Loss 433 Epilogue 441 Bibliography 443 xi xii Acknowledgements Once again in preparing this volume I have been helped and encouraged by many friends and colleagues who have given most generously of their time and thought.
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Bowlby, J. (1980) The Trauma of Loss. Attachment and Loss: Volume III: Loss, Sadness and Depression 109:7-22
- This was in part because the traditional pictures of how children and adults respectively are thought to respond to loss had greatly exaggerated such real differences as exist, and in part because there was little understanding of the nature of attachment behaviour and its role in human life.
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Bowlby, J. (1980) Conceptual Framework. Attachment and Loss: Volume III: Loss, Sadness and Depression 109:38-43
- and loss give rise. The body of theory resulting, which for convenience I term attachment theory, deals with the same phenomena that hitherto have been dealt with in terms of ‘dependency need’ or of ‘object relations’ or of ‘symbiosis and individuation’.
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Bowlby, J. (1980) Conditions Affecting the Course of Mourning. Attachment and Loss: Volume III: Loss, Sadness and Depression 109:172-201
- attachment and caregiving long present in both parties. Although for reasons to be discussed shortly the number of cases reported in which disordered mourning has followed loss of child is comparatively small, students of the problem are impressed by the severity of the cases that they have seen.
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Bowlby, J. (1980) Childhood Experiences of Persons Prone to Disordered Mourning. Attachment and Loss: Volume III: Loss, Sadness and Depression 109:214-228
- In one family there may be deep respect for affectional bonds, ready response to expressions of attachment behaviour, and sympathetic understanding of the anxiety, anger and distress aroused by temporary separation from a loved figure or by permanent loss.
- In the light of these considerations, and also of reports of the effects on young children of a parent insisting they do not cry (see Chapters 1 and 23), the hypothesis is advanced that a major determinant of how a person responds to a loss is the way his attachment behaviour, and all the feeling that goes with it, was evaluated by his parents and responded to during his infancy, childhood and adolescence.
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Bowlby, J. (1980) Responses to Loss During the Second Year. Attachment and Loss: Volume III: Loss, Sadness and Depression 109:412-424
- This evidence, moreover, has been recorded by researchers working in two distinct traditions, clinicians studying problems of attachment, separation and loss, and psychologists concerned with cognitive development.
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Bowlby, J. (1980) Young Children's Responses in the Light of Early Cognitive Development. Attachment and Loss: Volume III: Loss, Sadness and Depression 109:425-439
- It is of interest, for example, that the therapeutic principles advocated by Fleming (1975) and which she derives from Mahler's developmental scheme are extremely close to those I have myself derived from attachment theory (Bowlby 1977). The Role of Person Permanence in Determining Responses to Separation and Loss When data on how infants and very young children respond to the A child developing compulsive self-reliance may also show a capacity to sustain brief separations with what appears to be equanimity; but the representational model of his mother that he is presumed to have developed is of course a very different one.
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Bowlby, J. (1981) IV John Bowlby. Psychoanalytic Review 68:187-190
- The author of the trilogy, Attachment and Loss, Dr. Bowlby has also published Maternal Care and Mental Health and numerous articles on attachment and separation.
- Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1. Attachment.
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