Some Remarks on Defences, Autonomous Ego and Psycho-Analytic Technique1

Psycho-analytic treatment since its very beginning has been used as an experimental set-up which permits generalizations applicable not only to therapy and to psychopathology, but beyond these, to normal psychology as well. The present report will take account of all these aspects of psycho-analysis.

In most of the fundamental and pathogenic conflicts which he found to be at the origin of neurotic disorders, Freud studied at first more completely that side of the conflict which encompassed the instinctual drives. The study of the forces opposing the drives was undertaken later. These forces are observable, in the experimental set-up represented by the psycho-analytic treatment, in the phenomena of resistance. Although the concept of defence mechanisms in the pathogenesis of neuroses had been used by Freud very early, and although the study of the main defence mechanism (repression) was very far advanced (12), the application of this concept to psycho-analytic technique did not go beyond a purely descriptive classification of resistances.

Freud's theoretical contributions in the 'twenties brought about a decisive advance (14), (15), (16). His reformulation of the theory of anxiety—leading from, as it were, a physiological to a more biological plane (Kris, 30) —was better apt to describe man in relation to his environment. Furthermore, by introducing the structural point of view, Freud created the conceptual tools necessary for this shift. The introduction of the concepts of id, ego, and super-ego permitted a more adequate description of the psychic functions of man within his physical, biological, and social environment. Moreover, the conception of anxiety as a signal of danger encompassed the individual history of danger situations and, consequently, of motives for defence. Thus it laid the basis for our present concept of defence mechanisms; i.e. of the various means by which the ego deals with the outside world, the instinctual dr