In the last thirty-five years, theories derived from observational studies on normally developing infants and toddlers as well as on children with severe pathology have augmented Freud's original contribution to the theory of identification.

Mahler's formulations, in particular, are used in this paper to demonstrate the importance for identification of the mutual interaction between mother (or caregiver) and even the very young infant, and to delineate the gradual process by which are achieved intrapsychic self and object-representations. The thread of identification is followed from earliest mirroring of the young infant to post-oedipal ego identifications.