Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, XIII, 1965: Psychoanalytic Notes on the History of Morality. David Beres. Pp. 3-37.

This is a most stimulating paper dealing with the history of morality, especially the origin and evolution of moral values and their relation to psychoanalysis. The

psychoanalytic contribution is twofold: 1, to describe the mechanisms which result in man's specific beliefs and ideals, and 2, to indicate the methods by which stability of moral functioning is achieved, i.e., through the development of the autonomy of the superego.

The author believes that the psychic apparatus of man has not changed through the ages. Therefore, each child must develop his moral attitudes and behavior by identification and internalization. Beginning with some intriguing speculations on the meaning of the animal figures in the Lascaux cave, Beres reviews the conflicts of primitive man—namely those dealing with his instinctual impulses such as incest, parricide, etc. He describes how totemism with its accompanying taboos provided primitive man with an institutionalized control over his impulses. As civilization became more complex it was necessary to devise new ways for controlling these instinctual drives. Brief mention is made of various cultures and how laws evolved, e.g., the codes of Hammurabi, Moses, and of ancient Egypt. In Greece the transition was made from the worship of a deity established by the earlier codex to loyalty to the city-state. The impact of Jewish and Christian ethics and morality on the development of the superego is also mentioned. Whenever moral values are based too much on external sanctions and fear of punishment, regressive forms of behavior are frequent concomitants. Lutherism and Calvinism imposed authority from without and encouraged severe reaction-formations. Since the development of superego autonomy is dependent on internalization, the outward dependence on external controls into adulthood may impede the tendency toward development of internalization.

Another significant issue is raised by the author. Is there evidence of difference in th