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Eighteen encounter groups directed by apostles of different ideological schools were investigated by the authors. All group members were Stanford University undergraduates. They completed a questionnaire before beginning, after each meeting, at the end of the group experience, and six months after completion. Groups met for thirty hours. There was no pregroup screening of members.
Yalom and Lieberman categorize as a casuality any individual who experienced an enduring (judged eight months after the group experience) negative outcome caused by participating in the group. Of the various methods for identifying casualties, the most reliable was peer evaluation: all members were asked, 'Did anyone get hurt in your group?'. The frequency and severity of psychological distress varied considerably among the eighteen groups. Of two hundred and nine undergraduates, one hundred and seventy completed the group experience. Of these, sixteen were considered casualties. It was found particularly stressful to have a leader whose style is characterized by charisma, aggressive stimulation, and who focuses on the individual in an authoritarian manner. This leader style was related to forty-four per cent of the casualties. Individuals who over-invest their hopes of salvation through encounter groups are especially vulnerable when they interact with leaders who believe that they can offer deliverance. The authors compare the encounter technologies and given data about positive gains for many group members.