Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. XXXII, 1977: Depressive Affect. T. L. Dorpat. Pp. 3-27.

Ways of conceptualizing depressive affect (as distinct from depressive illness) form the body of this complex and rich paper. Four aspects are presented: classification, developmental line, the role of depressive affect in adaptation, and its role in formation of symptoms and defenses. Two primary affects of unpleasure are postulated, "primary anxiety affect" and "primary depressive affect." Secondary derivatives of the latter include helplessness, hopelessness, depressive affect per se, shame, guilt, grief, sadness, and mourning. Depressive affect can be distinguished from primary anxiety by specific criteria. The degree of experienced certainty differentiates them. The developmental line from a state of infantile helplessness (requiring no time sense) to hopelessness (requiring considerable representational and synthesizing work to be experienced) is outlined thus: helplessness, shame, depressive affect and guilt, and finally sadness, grief, and mourning. In adaptation the reciprocal relationship between affective and structural development is emphasized. An effective ego and superego are necessary to master depressive affect. Conversely, depressive affect is necessary to the development of ego and superego.