Two theses that are generally thought to be essential to Freud's theory are: (1) there exist unconscious instinctual impulses which underlie psychopathology; and (2) such instinctual impulses can be brought into conscious awareness through psychoanalysis. It is hard to imagine that anyone could reject these familiar theses and still be considered a Freudian. However, something must be wrong with this common understanding of Freud's theory, because the fact is that Sigmund Freud rejected both theses. In an inadequately appreciated passage (1915, p. 177), Freud asserts both that instinctual impulses can never be unconscious, and that instinctual impulses can never become objects of consciousness. Philosophers of science suggest that theoretical progress is most likely when the theoretician attempts