Cultures and Their Discontents: On the Cultural Mediation of Shame and Guilt

In various parts of Civilizations and Its Discontents, Freud (1930) raises the very important and interesting question of whether social, cultural, and historical contingencies may affect how the process of renunciation and the development of guilt unfolds, but then leaves the question dangling. This article argues that rather than leave Freud's anthropological question dangling, we should take it seriously by examining more closely the phenomenology of human subjectivity in other times and places. The article uses person-centered data and interviews from 1960s Tahiti and 1980s Toraja to suggest that the quality and intensity of shame and guilt in small, face-to-face communities may differ considerably from that described by Freud in Civilization and Its Discontents. The paper concludes by arguing that it is to Freud's focus on the experiential dimension of human life to which we should turn when examining discontentment and unhappiness from a cross-cultural point of view. When we do, we return with renewed interest and appreciation to the profound anthropological and sociological questions Freud raised but never answered in Civilization and Its Discontents.